A Brief History of British (England)

The historical events of British (English) could be grouped into four main periods. There are:

The Early Period of English History (3 millennium BC-1066 AD)

Iberian

A native inhabitants of Iberians Peninsula of southwest Europe occupied by Spain and Portugal, to Britain in the third millennium BC which were then overrun by the various Celtic invasions beginning in the 8th century BC. The Iberians brought their metal-working skill and the first real civilization to Britain.

The Celts

The Celts originated from central Europe spreading to Western Europe and then to the British Isles, they brought their tribal organization and an early form of agriculture. They were forced by the Roman invasions in the beginning 43 AD by Cladius to the westward into Ireland, Wales, and Cornwall. The Celts were considered as the ancient Britons.

Roman Britain

A Great Invasion

More than four countries, from 55 BC up to 410 AD, Britain was under the influence of Roman Empire. In their early efforts to control Britains, the Romans used their military superiority to to gain control of the areas against the Celts. It happened in 54 BC-61 AD under the Roman rules Cassivelanus, Aulus, Plautius, Ostorius Scapula, and Suetonius Paulinus. The Britons were taken prisoners or killed and so were the Romans in the wars which were won by the Romans.

Anglo-Saxons

The Anglo-Saxons were the pirates from northwest of Germany (Norwegia, Swedia, Scandinavia, Denmark) who landed and settled in Thanet and Kent in about 449 AD and occupied the coasted areas up to become one people influenced by Romans buildings and roads and more importantly by Christianity.

The Danish Invasions

The Danes (Danish) invaded England and settled in Sheppey in 851. In the 875 the Danish won all England except Wessex. Then the Danish under Guthrum in 876 invaded and defeated by King Alfred that forced him to take a refuge at Athelney.

Medieval England (1066-1485)

There are some historical events during this period:

• In 1066, England was conquered by William of Normandy.
• 1067-1071, Saxon revolts against Normans.
• The Kingdom become more powerful and the government more orderly.
• 1338-1453, there was The Hundred Years War, the war between France and England. 
• 1348, The Black Death which caused the plague broke out.
• 1381, there was The Peasants' Revolt.

The Beginning of Modern Times (1485-1760)

Renaissance

Renaissance Era

Renaissance means the re-birth in the outlook of Europe which took place during the 14 to the 16 centuries. The re-birth refers to the revival of the learning of ancient Greece.

Tudor Dynasty

1. Henry VII (1485-1509)
2. Henry VIII (1509-1547)
3. Edward VI (1547-1553)
4. Mary (1553-1558)
5. Queen Elizabeth I (1558-1603)

Colonial development.

The conflict between king and parliament.

The Present Age (1760-20th Century)

Some important events during this period:

• Industrial Revolution
• Agriculture Revolution
• Victorian Britain (19th Century)
• The Rise of the Working Class
• Britain's as the World Power
• Britain Decline as World Power
• The World War I
• The World War II

That's the brief information about historical period of British (England), there are so many things you could find in the other books or sources if yo want to know more about it. Feel free to give any comments or corrections :)

Source:

• Introductory Study on the History of English (by Drs. H. Mundari Muhada, Dipl. TEFL)
• Images from Google
• Video from YouTube

The Law of Information and Electronic Transactions (UU ITE) Republic of Indonesia

UU ITE 2008

UU ITE stands for Undang-Undang Informasi dan Transaksi Elektronik (The Law of Information and Electronic Transactions. This act was designed since March, 2003 by the Ministry of Communications and Technology and then authorized as the fixed act in 2008 (UU Nomor 11 tahun 2008). This act regulated all forms of activities that exist in the virtual world or internet under the auspices Republic of Indonesia.

The contents of the law as written below:

1. Website Content Violation

Pornography

Pornography is the most violation that occurred in the virtual world by displaying photos, stories or moving images inappropriate for display. We always find a case when someone manipulates the image or photograph of another person without consent, such as occurs in many porn sites.

Copyright Infringement

Copyright infringement often occurs in both the private and commercial web sites. For example, providing better facilities free download photos, songs, software, film and paper which are copyrighted.

2. Electronic Crime in Commerce

Online Fraud
Crime in electronic commerce (e-commerce) in the form, online scams, multilevel marketing scams online and credit card fraud. According Cahyana, online fraud characteristics that attracted many product prices are very low, the seller does not provide a phone number, no response to questions by e-mail, and promising products that are not available. The worst risk for crime victims are paid but never received the product, or the product was not obtained in accordance with the promised. The characteristics of this crime: the price of the products are widely enjoyed lower, the seller does not provide a phone number, no response to the question via email, promising products that are not available.

Tiered Marketing Scams Online

The characteristic is seeking to profit from recruiting members and selling fictitious products, with a 98 percent risk for the victims of this failed investment or loss.

Credit Card Fraud

The characteristic is there's mysterious charges on the card billing for internet products or services that were never ordered, the victims need time to pay off their credit.

3. Other Violations

Recreational Hacker
The beginner hacker is aimed only to break a system and show less of security system at a company.

Cracker

The motivation is to gain a financial profit by doing sabotage to the destruction of the data.

Political Hacker

A political activity through a web site to attach a message or discredit an opponent.

Denial of Service Attack

Attack by flooding the huge data and the resulting access to a web site to be very slow or turn into jam or can not be accessed at all.

Viruses
At least 200 new viruses spread through the internet and are usually hidden in a file or an e-mail to be downloaded over a network or the Internet and floppy.

Piracy

Piracy software that eliminates the potential revenue of a company that produced such, games, business applications and other copyright.

Fraud

Activities manipulation of information, especially about finances with a target maximum profits. Examples: making a fake phone card.

Phishing

Techniques for personal information such as e-mail addresses and account numbers by sending an e-mail as if it came from the bank concerned.

Gambling

Many forms of gambling casinos operating on the internet that provide opportunities for organized criminal money laundering everywhere.

Cyber ​​Stalking

Constitute any form of e-mail submissions unwanted acceptance and includes measures of coercion.

With the existence of this law, the owner of a work does not have to worry again about the violation on the virtual world, but it also can not guarantee that their work will not be abused, but with the law could at least minimize the piracy activities existing on the virtual world or internet.

Source:http://bl1t4r.blogspot.com/2012/09/undang-undang-republik-indonesia.html#ixzz2kTKqE9

Using Language

In my previous post, I’m a little bit talking about language. The main function of language is to communicate. In communicating with others, we make a conversation which has some principles on it. Paul Grice, an American philosopher who is regarded as ‘father of pragmatics’ emphasized that human beings communicate efficiently because they are by nature helpful to one another. He attempted to specify the principles which underlie this cooperative behaviour, and proposed four maxims or rules of conversation which can jointly be summarized as a general principle: “Be Cooperative”. These are the four maxims below.

Conversation

Maxim of Quantity

Give the right amount of information when you talk. If someone at a party asked, “Who’s that person with Edward?”, a cooperative answer would be, “That’s his new girlfriend, Isabella”. An uncooperative reply would be an over brief one, such as, “A girl”, or an over long one, such as, “That’s Isabella Marie Swan, born in Forks, USA on 13^th September 1987, daughter of Charlie and Ranee Swan….. etc”.

Maxim of Quality

Be truthful. For example, if someone asked you the name of an unfamiliar animal, such as platypus, you should reply truthfully, and don’t say, “It’s a kookaburra”, or “It’s a duck”, if you know it’s platypus.

Maxim of Relevance

Be relevant. If someone says, “What’s for supper?” , give a reply which fits the question, such as, “Fish and chips”, and not “Tables and chairs”, or “Buttercups are yellow”.

Maxim of Manner

Be clear and orderly. For example, describes things in the order in which they occurred: “The plane taxied down the runway, and took off to the rest” rather than “The plane took off to the west and taxied down the runway”, which might confuse people as to what actually happened.

Here’s a video from youtube which tells about how to use language effectively.

The effective way to communicate is make us easy to deliver our message to the receivers. I hope that my explanation above is quite clear, if isn't, you can try to find another source that can give more understanding to you. Thank you for reading :)

Source:

• Linguistics by Jean Aithcison
• Image from Google
• Video from YouTube

Language

Can you imagine how many languages exist in the world? We can't mention it one by one because there so many. I'm always curious about the existence of the language. So, here I'm trying to make a small article about it based on the knowledge that I have ever received during my linguistic class.

What is Language?

What is language?

According to terminology, language is a system of words used to name things in a particular discipline. There are also another definitions about language:

• A systematic means of communicating by the use of sounds of conventional symbol.
• System communication of human living by sounds and meaning.
• A system used to communicate, comprised of a set of symbols and a set of rules (or grammar) by which the manipulation by the symbols productively to convey the new info, distinguish languages from other forms communication.

From the meanings of languages above, I can conclude that the basic or the important components of the language are the sound and the meaning. In saying a word, of course we need a sound that comes from or mouth, and the word that we are saying should have a meaning. That's one of the ways of communication among human being. If a word has meaning, people will understand what message we are going to deliver.

Basic Aspects of Language

After understanding the meaning of language, we'll know some basic aspect of language:

• Sound (the study of sound of language is called phonetics and phonology)
• Meaning (the study of meaning of words is called semantics)
• Form (the study of form of words is called morphology)
• Structure (the study of structure of phrase/sentence is called syntax)

Units of Language

• Phoneme, it is any of the distinct unit of sound that distinguish one word from the another.
• Morpheme, it is a meaningful morphological unit of the language that cannot be further divided.
• Word, it is a single distinct meaningful element of speech of writing, used to to form sentence with another.

Beside what I have mentioned above, there are units of language after the unit word: phrase, clause (sentence), paragraph, and discourse.

Functions of Language

In learning about language, of course we should know the functions of it. There are some functions of language: 

• To communicate the ideas and messages in cooperation with other in order to survive.
• To communicate feelings and emotions.
• To express aesthetic ideas.
• etc.

A Brief History of Language

• Before 19 Century, language was interest of philosophy. Plato and Aristotle (384-322 BC) made contributions to the study of the study of language. They distinguish the noun and verb.
• In 1786, Sir William Jones was introduced historical linguistics, comparative linguistics, and prototypes of language.
• According to Leipzi, language is regular.
• Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), often called as the father of modern linguistics: language is built structure of interwoven elements (the beginning of structural linguistics)
• Leonard Bloomfield (1923): Descriptive linguistics.
• Noam Chomsky (1957): Generative linguistics (grammar which describes a language in terms of a set of logical rules whereby the infinite number of possible sentences of that language can be generated). Chomsky labelled the abstract rules as Universal Grammar (UG).

Languages Facts 

Here some facts about the language:

• Whenever humans exist, language exists.
• Uses sounds and signals.
• Language has discrete sounds.
• Arbitrariness (there is no relationship between sound and meaning in most words).
• Duality (layers of units): Every language has a class of vowels and a class of consonants.
• Displacement: It can present things that happen in the class.
• Creativity (productivity)
• Patterning
• Structure dependence
• There no primitive languages.
• All languages change through time.
• There are similar grammatical categories.
• Every language has semantic universals.

To make it clear, I recommend you to watch this video that explains about the language, I hope you can catch it well.

That’s all the brief information about the language. If you want to learn more about the language especially English, I suggest you to read some books of linguistics. You’ll find more there. Thank you so much to my dearest lecturer for giving me such kind of knowledge. And also thank you for my beloved readers, please give me your comment or correction if you find any mistakes on my post. I’ll be very happy to receive a criticism to make me better in the future :)

Source:

• Linguistics by Jean Aithcison
• Image from Google
• Video from YouTube